Shutter Island is an American Psychological Film that expresses a lot of disorder and dissociative identities disorders, especially from the main character of the movie, Leonardo DiCaprio. The movie is a reflection of the Dennis Lehane’s novel of , which was later produced as a Fountain Essays: A custom essay writing service that sells original assignment help services to students. We provide essay writing services, other custom assignment help services, and research materials for references purposes only. Students should ensure that they reference the materials obtained from our website appropriately Nov 18, · Personality disorders (PDs) exert a great toll on health resources, and this is especially true for borderline personality disorder (BPD). As all PDs, BPD arises during adolescence or young adulthood. It is therefore important to detect the presence of this PD in its earlier stages in order to initiate appropriate treatment, thus ameliorating the prognosis of this condition
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Hormonal influences on the organization of behavior are apparent multiple personality disorder essay neuroendocrinologists but under-examined in relation to childhood and adolescent mental disorders. A central mystery in the field of developmental psychopathology is the preferential male vulnerability to behavior disorders in childhood and female vulnerability to emotional disorders in adolescence. Relative neglect of a hormonal explanation may be due to lack of simple or unifying conceptual paradigms to guide studies.
This paper seeks to stimulate research in this area by drawing upon clinical psychology and neuroscience literatures to offer a heuristic paradigm for clinical research. Two guiding theories are evaluated. First, prenatal organizational effects of testosterone may modulate striatally-based dopaminergic circuits in such a way as to place boys at greater risk for early developing inattention and disruptive behavioral disorders.
Second, activational effects of estradiol at puberty may modulate amygdalar and other circuitry, with particular effects on serotoninergic pathways, in such a way as to place girls at greater risk for internalizing and mood disorders. Hypotheses from these theories are evaluated based on the current available literature, and limitations of, and future directions for, this literature are discussed.
From a neuroscience perspective, the major role that gonadal hormones play in the organization of the brain and behavioral systems is well-known e. In the clinical field of mental disorders, a fundamental puzzle has been characteristic sex differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders. Males are more vulnerable to the development of childhood-onset behavior disorders i.
Females are more vulnerable to the development of emotional disorders having later onsets, with modal multiple personality disorder essay ages in adolescence i. Gonadal hormones may indeed play a role in these sex-biased prevalence rates. Yet surprisingly little research has explored how exactly they might do so, multiple personality disorder essay. One obstacle has been the lack of a detailed, organizing theory to guide such research in an integrated fashion. Yet some heuristic models of hormone effects on psychopathology exist.
A hormonal model of eating disorders posits that lower levels of prenatal testosterone exposure increases risk for disordered eating Culbert et al. These models illustrate the type of approach we advocate. However, even these models lack an integrative mechanistic explanation of how hormones affect psychopathology or how they might account for the more generalized sex different patterns seen across psychopathology.
In this vein, this essay draws upon themes in basic neuroscience and clinical science of mental disorders to outline likely specific hormonal mechanisms relevant to two major kinds of psychopathology and to provide a basic framework to stimulate research on this problem.
To constrain the scope of the discussion, we frame two fundamental theories organized around two common mental disorders: ADHD and MDD. Particular nosological features of these two syndromes are important to bear in mind when considering how hormones may participate in their development. As well, a general perspective on hormonal action is necessary to set the stage for this discussion.
There are several categories of gonadal hormones. Two of these categories are particularly relevant to discussion of hormonal effects on psychopathology: androgens and estrogens.
Androgens, or C 19 steroid hormones, include testosterone, androstenedione, a biochemically reduced form of testosterone 5α- and 5β-dihyrotestosterone DHTand dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA. Estrogens, or C 18 steroid hormones, multiple personality disorder essay, include 17β-estradiol, estrone, and estriol.
While other hormones e. While androgens and estrogens are the broad focus of this review, it should be noted that most work to date has emphasized the specific androgen testosterone and the specific estrogen estradiol.
The effects of these sex hormones fall into two major categories. As a simplifying heuristic, in humans, multiple personality disorder essay, testosterone is a prominent androgenic hormone that exerts organizational effects.
Although activational effects can be due to many different kinds of hormones, estrogens are commonly implicated, multiple personality disorder essay. For the present discussion, hormonal effects are divided into two developmental periods: organizational effects in perinatal development and activational effects at the pubertal transition.
Taking this perspective, multiple personality disorder essay, hypotheses about sex differences in psychopathology naturally arise due to the fact that sex differences in psychopathology prevalence rates primarily arise during, or shortly after, multiple personality disorder essay key developmental periods. For this review, we focus on one exemplar externalizing and one exemplar internalizing disorder: ADHD, multiple personality disorder essay, which generally has a childhood onset, and MDD which generally has an adolescent onset.
Youth with this disorder often, but not invariably, exhibit learning and cognitive problems and experience chronic maladjustment. Clinical heterogeneity has long been a challenge to studying the etiology of this disorder. In the DSM-IV-TR APA,ADHD was divided into three subtypes: hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, multiple personality disorder essay, and combined.
However, these subtypes have failed several fundamental tests of validity, perhaps most crucially lack of temporal stability Lahey et al. On the other hand, the behavioral dimensions that comprise ADHD, inattention-disorganization and hyperactivity-impulsivity, multiple personality disorder essay, have received extensive ongoing validation.
They prove robust in large multiple personality disorder essay analytic studies Pillow et al, multiple personality disorder essay. Building on those findings, theorists have begun to ask whether partially distinct neurobiological determinants may shape the behavioral dimensions of inattention and hyperactiviety-impulsivity e.
Cognitive control may be a mechanism of ADHD that can shed light on these neurobiological determinants of ADHD. Cognitive control is defined as the ability to direct attention and behavior in an effortful manner i.
Turning next to MDD, it is characterized by depressed mood in children, sometimes exhibited as irritabilitylow energy, negative thoughts, hopelessness, loss of interest or pleasure in previously enjoyed activities, and sleep and appetite changes.
MDD has recently begun to be recognized in young children. However, it remains comparatively rare in childhood, with equal risk to boys and girls. At puberty, however, major depression exhibits a dramatic increase in incidence and becomes more common in girls APA, ; Hankin et al. Several theories have been advanced to explain this phenomenon, including differential physical development and socialization of girls and boys in adolescence Nolen-Hoeksema, and abnormalities in serotonin neurotransmission Cameron, b.
However, differential hormonal exposure at puberty remains an important possibility Angold et al. Negative affect i. We multiple personality disorder essay review briefly what is known about organizational hormonal effects on neural development and behavior. Based on this information, we propose a guiding theory of hormonal effects on ADHD.
Next, based on a substantial literature review, we critically review what is known about organizational hormonal effects on ADHD and cognitive control mechanisms in order to critically evaluate hypotheses derived from that theory, multiple personality disorder essay.
We follow the same logic with activational hormonal multiple personality disorder essay, beginning with their effects on neural circuitry and behavior, proceeding to a guiding theory of hormonal effect on MDD, and ending with critical review of what can be concluded about activational hormonal effects on Multiple personality disorder essay and negative affect in order to evaluate key hypotheses.
Finally, we discuss limitations of previous work and provide guidelines for future work on hormones and psychopathology. The organizational hypothesis states that prenatal exposure to hormones during a critical period of development permanently affects the developing brain, altering behavior even into adulthood Phoenix et al, multiple personality disorder essay. After genetic i. The testes release several androgenic steroid hormones including testosterone that masculinize the developing body and brain during the prenatal period.
Ovaries release little or no hormone prenatally. Thus, genetic sex is linked to gonadal sex, which is linked to hormonal sex. Hormonal sex is defined as the ratio of circulating estrogen-to-androgen, which is higher in most prenatal and mature females than in males. Sexual differentiation, a term used to discuss how humans and animals develop into males and females, is integrally tied with organizational effects.
The classical theory states that androgens cause masculine development, whereas their absence is linked to feminine development. The active feminization model suggests that ovarian hormones also play a role, actively promoting feminization of neural circuitry and behavior, multiple personality disorder essay.
The gradient model suggests that hormones influence not just behavioral differences between sexes e. That is, females exposed to higher levels of androgen in utero may exhibit more male-like characteristics e. We elaborate briefly on the classical model because it has guided most research on sexual differentiation, multiple personality disorder essay.
Animal research mainly with rats on normal prenatal development suggests that the masculine pattern of exposure to high levels of testosterone in late gestation and early postnatal development may influence neural development via several mechanisms, listed in Table 1 and depicted in Figure 1. In addition, multiple personality disorder essay, high levels of testosterone lead to increased neural lateralization i.
Multiple personality disorder essay of lateral specialization has apparent clinical consequences, multiple personality disorder essay. For example, women recover language more frequently than men following focal stroke Inglis, ; Yager et al.
Overall, three direct developmental mechanisms related to testosterone appear to increase male vulnerability to subtle insult in the pre- and perinatal period: increased cell proliferation and death, slower prenatal multiple personality disorder essay development, and increased lateralization of brain function. Testosterone may have modulatory effects on neural development. For example, testosterone may modulate neurotransmitter activity prenatally.
When pregnant rats were exposed to restraint stress, their male pups had reduced testosterone levels, as well as increased dopamine levels in the striatum Gerardin et al. Multiple personality disorder essay finding suggests that testosterone and dopamine interact in response to developmental events. Testosterone may interact with genotype to influence neural development as well as behavior. Perhaps the most important upstream effect of hormones, in terms of their eventual influence on behavior, is via their effects on brain structure and brain function.
One sexually dimorphic neural structure is the neural pathway between the two cortical hemispheres, multiple personality disorder essay. The corpus callosum i. Sexual dimorphism in brain function also has been observed in animals and humans. For example, multiple personality disorder essay, human females appear to display less lateralization i. Becker found sex differences in multiple personality disorder essay development of dopaminergic function i. In female rats, extracellular striatal dopamine varies across the estrous cycle such that higher levels of estrogen are related to more amphetamine-induced dopamine release in the striatum.
Cosgrove et al. Global cerebral blood flow is higher in women than in men. Sex differences also have been noted in neurotransmission. Whole blood serotonin levels are higher in women, whereas men synthesize serotonin more quickly than women. Dopaminergic function is enhanced in women via increased dopamine transporter availability and higher striatal presynaptic dopamine synthesis.
Sex differences in behavior, many of which appear across species, therefore may be influenced by hormones. Based on the above review of literature on organizational hormonal effects on neurobiology and behavior, two theories of organizational effects on ADHD were postulated.
The first theory states that gonadal hormones may modulate the processes that guide the development of dopaminergic circuitry, influencing corresponding deficits in cognitive control and reward processes in ADHD. High levels of testosterone may affect dopaminergic neural circuitry by slowing down neural development globally and making the dopaminergic components of the brain vulnerable for a longer period of time during prenatal development e.
In this way, prenatal testosterone levels may moderate the relationship between prenatal risk factors including genes, contaminants, low birth weight, maternal smoking, etc. and the developing prenatal neurobiology implicated in ADHD see Figure 2a. In the second theory of hormonal mechanisms of ADHD, gonadal hormones may act directly on the prenatal development of dopaminergic neural circuitry and dopamine function in the nucleus accumbens, striatum, and prefrontal cortex via its masculinizing effects, which are then evidenced by corresponding deficits in cognitive control and reward processes see Figure 2a.
The Truth About Multiple Personality Disorder [Not A Mental Disease]
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